The selection of the appropriate financial indicator depends on the facts and circumstances of the case, see paragraph 2.82. Concerns have been expressed that Berry ratios are sometimes used in cases where they are not appropriate without the caution that is necessary in the selection and determination of any transfer pricing method and financial indicator. See paragraph 2.98 in relation to the use of cost-based indicators in general. One common difficulty in the determination of Berry ratios is that they are very sensitive to classification of costs as operating expenses or not, and therefore can pose comparability issues. In addition, the issues raised at paragraphs 2.99-2.100 above in relation to pass-through costs equally arise in the application of Berry ratios. In order for a Berry ratio to be appropriate to test the remuneration of a controlled transaction (e.g. consisting in the distribution of products), it ... Continue to full case

“Berry ratios” are defined as ratios of gross profit to operating expenses. Interest and extraneous income are generally excluded from the gross profit determination; depreciation and amortisation may or may not be included in the operating expenses, depending in particular on the possible uncertainties they can create in relation to valuation and comparability ... Continue to full case

Other net profit indicators may be appropriate depending on the facts and circumstances of the transactions. For instance, depending on the industry and on the controlled transaction under review, it may be useful to look at other denominators where independent data may exist, such as: floor area of retail points, weight of products transported, number of employees, time, distance, etc. While there is no reason to rule out the use of such bases where they provide a reasonable indication of the value added by the tested party to the controlled transaction, they should only be used where it is possible to obtain reliable comparable information to support the application of the method with such a net profit indicator ... Continue to full case

In cases where the net profit is weighted to assets, the question arises how to value the assets, e.g. at book value or market value. Using book value could possibly distort the comparison, e.g. between those enterprises that have depreciated their assets and those that have more recent assets with on-going depreciation, and between enterprises that use acquired intangibles and others that use self-developed intangibles. Using market value could possibly alleviate this concern, although it can raise other reliability issues where valuation of assets is uncertain and can also prove to be extremely costly and burdensome, especially for intangible assets. Depending on the facts and circumstances of the case, it may be possible to perform adjustments to improve the reliability of the comparison. The choice between book value, adjusted book value, market value and other possibly available options should be made with a view to ... Continue to full case

Returns on assets (or on capital) can be an appropriate base in cases where assets (rather than costs or sales) are a better indicator of the value added by the tested party, e.g. in certain manufacturing or other asset-intensive activities and in capital-intensive financial activities. Where the indicator is a net profit weighted to assets, operating assets only should be used. Operating assets include tangible operating fixed assets, including land and buildings, plant and equipment, operating intangible assets used in the business, such as patents and know-how, and working capital assets such as inventory and trade receivables (less trade payables). Investments and cash balances are generally not operating assets outside the financial industry sector ... Continue to full case

The use of budgeted costs can also raise a number of concerns where large differences between actual costs and budgeted costs result. Independent parties are not likely to set prices on the basis of budgeted costs without agreeing on what factors are to be taken into account in setting the budget, without having regard to how budgeted costs have compared with actual costs in previous years and without addressing how unforeseen circumstances are to be treated ... Continue to full case

Depending on the facts and circumstances of the case, actual costs, as well as standard or budgeted costs, may be appropriate to use as the cost base. Using actual costs may raise an issue because the tested party may have no incentive to carefully monitor the costs. In arrangements between independent parties, it is not rare that a cost savings objective is factored into the remuneration method. It can also happen in manufacturing arrangements between independent parties that prices are set on the basis of standard costs, and that any decrease or increase in actual costs compared to standard costs is attributed to the manufacturer. Where they reflect the arrangements that would be taken between independent parties, similar mechanisms could be taken into account in the application of the cost-based transactional net margin method. See paragraph 2.58 for a discussion of the same issue in ... Continue to full case

Where treating costs as pass-through costs is found to be arm’s length, a second question arises as to the consequences on comparability and on the determination of the arm’s length range. Because it is necessary to compare like with like, if pass-through costs are excluded from the denominator of the taxpayer’s net profit indicator, comparable costs should also be excluded from the denominator of the comparable net profit indicator. Comparability issues may arise in practice where limited information is available on the breakdown of the costs of the comparables ... Continue to full case

In applying a cost-based transactional net margin method, fully loaded costs are often used, including all the direct and indirect costs attributable to the activity or transaction, together with an appropriate allocation in respect of the overheads of the business. The question can arise whether and to what extent it is acceptable at arm’s length to treat a significant portion of the taxpayer’s costs as pass-through costs to which no profit element is attributed (i.e. as costs which are potentially excludable from the denominator of the net profit indicator). This depends on the extent to which an independent party in comparable circumstances would agree not to earn a mark-up on part of the costs it incurs. The response should not be based on the classification of costs as “internal” or “external” costs, but rather on a comparability (including functional) analysis. See paragraph 7.34 ... Continue to full case

Cost-based indicators should only be used in those cases where costs are a relevant indicator of the value of the functions performed, assets used and risks assumed by the tested party. In addition, the determination of what costs should be included in the cost base should derive from a careful review of the facts and circumstances of the case. Where the net profit indicator is weighted against costs, only those costs that directly or indirectly relate to the controlled transaction under review (or transactions aggregated in accordance to the principle at paragraphs 3.9-3.12) should be taken into account. Accordingly, an appropriate level of segmentation of a taxpayer’s accounts is needed in order to exclude from the denominator costs that relate to other activities or transactions and materially affect comparability with uncontrolled transactions. Moreover, in most cases only those costs which are of an operating nature ... Continue to full case

One question that arises in cases where the net profit indicator is weighted against sales is how to account for rebates and discounts that may be granted to customers by the taxpayer or the comparables. Depending on the accounting standards, rebates and discounts may be treated as a reduction of sales revenue or as an expense. Similar difficulties can arise in relation to foreign exchange gains or losses. Where such items materially affect the comparison, the key is to compare like with like and follow the same accounting principles for the taxpayer and for the comparables ... Continue to full case

A net profit indicator of net profit divided by sales, or net profit margin, is frequently used to determine the arm’s length price of purchases from an associated enterprise for resale to independent customers. In such cases, the sales figure at the denominator should be the re-sales of items purchased in the controlled transaction under review. Sales revenue that is derived from uncontrolled activities (purchase from independent parties for re-sale to independent parties) should not be included in the determination or testing of the remuneration for controlled transactions, unless the uncontrolled transactions are such that they do not materially affect the comparison; and/or the controlled and uncontrolled transactions are so closely linked that they cannot be evaluated adequately on a separate basis. One example of the latter situation can sometimes occur in relation to uncontrolled after-sales services or sales of spare parts provided by a ... Continue to full case

The denominator should be one that is capable of being measured in a reliable and consistent manner at the level of the taxpayer’s controlled transactions. In addition, the appropriate base should be one that is capable of being measured in a reliable and consistent manner at the level of the comparable uncontrolled transactions. This in practice limits the ability to use certain indicators, as discussed at paragraph 2.105 below. Further, the taxpayer’s allocation of indirect expenses to the transaction under review should be appropriate and consistent over time ... Continue to full case

The denominator should be reasonably independent from controlled transactions, otherwise there would be no objective starting point. For instance, when analysing a transaction consisting in the purchase of goods by a distributor from an associated enterprise for resale to independent customers, one could not weight the net profit indicator against the cost of goods sold because these costs are the controlled costs for which consistency with the arm’s length principle is being tested. Similarly, for a controlled transaction consisting in the provision of services to an associated enterprise, one could not weight the net profit indicator against the revenue from the sale of services because these are the controlled sales for which consistency with the arm’s length principle is being tested. Where the denominator is materially affected by controlled transaction costs that are not the object of the testing (such as head office charges, rental ... Continue to full case

The denominator should be focussed on the relevant indicator(s) of the value of the functions performed by the tested party in the transaction under review, taking account of its assets used and risks assumed. Typically, and subject to a review of the facts and circumstances of the case, sales or distribution operating expenses may be an appropriate base for distribution activities, full costs or operating expenses may be an appropriate base for a service or manufacturing activity, and operating assets may be an appropriate base for capital-intensive activities such as certain manufacturing activities or utilities. Other bases can also be appropriate depending on the circumstances of the case ... Continue to full case

The selection of the denominator should be consistent with the comparability (including functional) analysis of the controlled transaction, and in particular it should reflect the allocation of risks between the parties (provided said allocation of risks is arm’s length, see Section D.1.2.1 in Chapter I). For instance, capital-intensive activities such as certain manufacturing activities may involve significant investment risk, even in those cases where the operational risks (such as market risks or inventory risks) might be limited. Where a transactional net margin method is applied to such cases, the investment-related risks are reflected in the net profit indicator if the latter is a return on investment (e.g. return on assets or return on capital employed). Such indicator might need to be adjusted (or a different net profit indicator selected) depending on what party to the controlled transaction bears that risk, as well as on the ... Continue to full case

Whether start-up costs and termination costs should be included in the determination of the net profit indicator depends on the facts and circumstances of the case and on whether in comparable circumstances, independent parties would have agreed either for the party performing the functions to bear the start-up costs and possible termination costs; or for part or all of these costs to be recharged with no mark-up, e.g. to the customer or a principal; or for part or all of these costs to be recharged with a mark-up, e.g. by including them in the calculation of the net profit indicator of the party performing the functions. See Chapter IX, Part I, Section F for a discussion of termination costs in the context of a business restructuring ... Continue to full case

Difficult comparability issues can arise where the accounting treatment of some items by potential third party comparables is unclear or does not allow reliable measurement or adjustment (see paragraph 2.81). This can be the case in particular for depreciation, amortisation, stock option and pension costs. The decision whether or not to include such items in the determination of the net profit indicator for applying the transactional net margin method will depend on a weighing of their expected effects on the appropriateness of the net profit indicator to the circumstances of the transaction and on the reliability of the comparison (see paragraph 3.50) ... Continue to full case

For financial activities where the making and receiving of advances constitutes the ordinary business of the taxpayer, it will generally be appropriate to consider the effect of interest and amounts in the nature of interest when determining the net profit indicator ... Continue to full case

Whether foreign exchange gains and losses should be included or excluded from the determination of the net profit indicator raises a number of difficult comparability issues. First, it needs to be considered whether the foreign exchange gains and losses are of a trading nature (e.g. exchange gain or loss on a trade receivable or payable) and whether or not the tested party is responsible for them. Second, any hedging of the foreign currency exposure on the underlying trade receivable or payable also needs to be considered and treated in the same way in determining the net profit. In effect, if a transactional net margin is applied to a transaction in which the foreign exchange risk is borne by the tested party, foreign exchange gains or losses should be consistently accounted for (either in the calculation of the net profit indicator or separately) ... Continue to full case